MOTIVATION

Motivational concepts

Reward and reinforcement

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.

Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.

HUMAN RELATIONS

Human Relations Movement refers to those researchers of organizational development who study the behavior of people in groups, in particular workplace groups. It originated in the 1920s' Hawthorne studies, which examined the effects of social relations, motivation and employee satisfaction on factory productivity. The movement viewed workers in terms of their psychology and fit with companies, rather than as interchangeable parts.

"The hallmark of human-relation theories is the primacy given to organizations as human cooperative systems rather than mechanical contraptions."

Barnard stressed the following:

1. Natural groups, in which social aspects take precedence over functional organizational structures
2. Upwards communication, by which communication is two way, from worker to chief executive, as well as vice versa.
3. Cohesive and good leadership is needed to communicate goals and to ensure effective and coherent decision making

(Managing Organizations, Wilson and Rosenfeld, Mcgraw Hill Book Company, London, p9)

It has become a concern of many companies to improve the job-oriented interpersonal skills of employees. The teaching of these skills to employees is referred to as "soft skills" training. Companies need their employees to be able to successfully communicate and convey information, to be able to interpret others' emotions, to be open to others' feelings, and to be able to solve conflicts and arrive at resolutions. By acquiring these skills, the employees, those in management positions, and the customer can maintain more compatible relationships. (Human Relations Interpersonal Job-Oriented Skills 9e, Andrew J. DuBrin, Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2007, p2)

Institutes where Human Relations is studied include:

• The Tavistock Institute, co-publishers of the Human Relations journal
• The NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science
• The Oasis School of Human Relations, Oasis Press publishes human relations books and manuals
• Trevecca Nazarene University, Bachelors Degree in Management and Human Relations for working adults
• The University of Oklahoma offers a Bachelor of Arts in Human Relations as well as a Master of Human Relations.
• Concordia University (Montreal, Canada)offers a offers a Bachelor of Arts in Human Relations as well as a Master of Human Systems Intervention.